Asthma in Children and Adolescents

Description

Treatment

Treating an Acute Attack in the Hospital. An acute attack may require hospitalization. Laboratory tests, an electrocardiogram (ECG), and a chest x-ray are performed to determine lung function, oxygen levels, and other indications of severity or rule out other causes. Depending on the results, the following treatments may be given:

• Beta2-agonists are the standard therapy. They are typically administered with a nebulizer (a device that administers the drug in a fine spray). Studies are suggesting however, that, even very small children may be able to use metered-dose inhalers (MDIs), which are just as effective and more convenient than nebulizers. (Intravenous delivery is not recommended in most cases.)
• An anticholinergic agent (e.g., ipratropium) is sometimes added to improve symptoms.
• A corticosteroid (commonly called a steroid) given within the first hour helps reduce the need for hospitalization. They may be administered intravenously, as an injection, or orally. Children may respond well to oral steroids.
• Oxygen is usually administered, and can be life saving in severe cases.
• Infusions of magnesium sulfate opens airways and has been under investigation as an additional treatment in adults and children. Although its benefits have been debated, important studies in 2002 reported that intravenous magnesium enhances the effects of other treatments in adult patients with very severe acute asthma and is associated with few or no serious side effects. Its benefits for children need to be further demonstrated.
• In life-threatening situations, the patient may require mechanical ventilation.

Of note, antibiotics are not useful for asthma attacks if there is no strong evidence of the presence of a bacterial infection. (Viral infections, most often colds and flus, are more likely to trigger an asthma attack. In such cases, antibiotics do not appear to be beneficial and may have adverse effects.)

Discharge and Relapse After Hospitalization. It typically takes about three to four hours to determine if a patient can be safely sent home or if they need to stay. Patients are generally discharged under the following circumstances:

• When symptoms are gone or minimal, and
• The peak expiratory flow rate is 70% or more of the predicted rate.

Despite reasonable precautions, between 12% and 16% of patients relapse within two weeks. Receiving a steroid injection at discharge or taking an oral corticosteroid five to seven days after leaving the hospital can reduce this risk significantly.

General Guidelines for Treating and Managing Asthma on an On-Going Basis

Avoiding allergens, following appropriate drug treatments, and home monitoring are key elements in preventing dangerous asthma attacks and hospitalization. In addition, good communication between the physician and patients is a key factor in a successful management program.

The Two-Pronged Approach: Treating Symptoms and Controlling the Disease

A combination of medications is important and effective for both treating and preventing asthma attacks. Parents can greatly reduce the frequency and severity of their children's asthma attacks by understanding the difference between coping with asthma attacks and controlling the disease over time. According to a few studies, most parents do not discriminate between medications that provide rapid short-term relief and long-term symptom control. Medications for asthma are categorized by their ability to (1) relieve symptoms and (2) control inflammation and reduce the chances for long-term injury.

• Drugs Used to Open Airways for Symptom Relief. Medications that open the airways (bronchodilators) are used promptly for any moderate or severe asthma attack. Usually, these agents are short-acting beta-adrenergic agonists (beta2-agonists). Others used in special cases include theophylline and certain anticholinergic agents. None of these agents have any effect on the disease process itself. They are only useful for treating symptoms.
• Maintenance Drugs Used to Control Long-Term Inflammation and Prevent Long Injury. Simply coping with asthma symptoms without also controlling the damaging inflammatory response is a common and serious error. For adults and children over five with moderate to severe persistent asthma experts now recommend inhaled corticosteroids and long-acting beta2-agonists, such as salmeterol (Serevent). Long-term control therapy is now recommended even for infants and young children who had three or more episodes of wheezing with the year that lasted more than a day and who have other risk factors for asthma. Other anti-inflammatory agents include leukotriene-antagonists and cromolyn, but they are less effective.

Asthma flare-ups are much more common in children who do not comply with the prescribed treatment. In spite of the importance of this two-pronged approach, a significant number of moderate or severely asthmatic patients overuse their inhaled beta-agonists and underuse their corticosteroid medications. Studies report that less than half of children with severe asthma take a daily anti-inflammatory, and only a third use a peak flow meter to monitor their disease. The situation is far worse in inner city children with asthma, a group at high risk for severe complication.

Devices Used for Administering Inhaled Drugs

Most asthma drugs are inhaled using various forms of inhalers or nebulizers. Inhaled agents must be used regularly as prescribed and the patient carefully trained in their use in order for them to be effective and safe. Studies suggest that many children fail to use the devices properly, although newer devices are easier to use than others. The basic devices are the metered-dose inhaler (MDI), breath-actuated inhalers, dry powder inhalers, and nebulizers.

MDIs have used chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as their propellants, which are damaging to the environment. Over time CFS is being replaced with other propellants (e.g., hydrofluoroalkane) that are equally effective to CFCs, are environmentally safe, and do not chill the device as CFCs do. Devices that don't use propellants at all are also now available.

Metered-Dose Inhaler. The standard device for administering any asthma medication has been the metered-dose inhaler (MDI). This device, particularly when used with a holding chamber, allows precise doses to be delivered directly to the lungs. MDI-delivered drugs must be used regularly as prescribed and the patient carefully trained in their use in order for them to be effective and safe. Some patients hold the MDI too close to their mouths, or even inside them. Others may exhale too forcefully before inhalation. The holding chamber, or spacer, allows the patient additional time to inhale the medication and so improves delivery. They vary, however, in their ability to deliver medication. For example, in one study the AiroChamber-Plus was more effective than the EasiVent in delivering an inhaled steroid. It should be noted that often MDIs continue to deliver propellant after the drug has been used up. Patients should track their medicine and throw the device away when the last dose has been administered. Nebulizers (not MDIs) are typically used in very small children, both at home and in the emergency room. However, recent studies suggest that with the use of a face mask and a spacer, the MDI is effective even for infants in the emergency room and may prove to be useable at home.

Click the icon to see an illustrated series detailing a metered dose inhaler.

Breath-Actuated Inhalers. Breath-actuated rotary inhalers (e.g., Easi-Breathe and Autohaler) deliver the drug directly to the back of the throat as the user inhales. Their primary advantage over the MDI is their ease of use. They also do not use CFCs as propellants. In comparison studies, patients have been very successful with the breath-actuated inhalers. They are not recommended for children under eight years old.

Dry Powder Inhalers. Dry powder inhalers (DPIs) deliver a powdered form of beta2 agonists or corticosteroids directly into the lungs. They also do not use CFCs. Such devices include Rotahaler, Spinhaler, Turbohaler, Clickhaler, Easyhaler, Diskhaler, Discus, Twisthaler, Spiros, and others. DPIs are as effective as the older devices, and generally have a better taste and are easier to manage. They may differ among themselves, however, in their ability to deliver drugs into the airways. In one study, for example, the Turbohaler was easier to use than the Diskhaler and so achieved better delivery. The Discus is another effective DPI; it has a dose counter and protects against exhalation effects. More research is needed.

Humidity or extreme temperatures can affect their performance, so they should not be stored in humid places (e.g., bathroom cabinets) or locations subject to high temperatures (e.g., glove compartments during summer months).

Dry-powder may cause tooth erosion and children are advised to rinse their mouths out right after taking the drug and to brush twice a day with a fluoride toothpaste.

Other Hand-Held Inhalers. Respimat delivers a fine-mist spray that is created by forcing the liquid medication through nozzles. It does not use any propellant.

Nebulizers. A nebulizer is a machine that delivers a fine spray of medication-containing liquid. Nebulizers are often used for children younger than three years and sometimes for older children who have difficulty using the MDI. It takes five to 10 minutes to administer any medication using a nebulizer. And, because the spray is less targeted than with the inhaler, it must deliver large amounts of the drug. This increases the risk for toxicity and severe side effects. Nebulizers should not be used by children who can manage an inhaler. Their use has been associated with a higher rate of hospitalizations and longer duration of symptoms than inhalers. If children must use an albuterol nebulizer, parents should be sure that it does not contain the preservative benzalkonium, which actually narrows the airways.

Click the icon to see an illustrated series detailing the use of a nebulizer.

Non-Medical Treatment Strategies

Asthma triggers a vicious emotional-physical cycle:

• Breathlessness and wheezing incite a fear of suffocation and death, even in very small children.
• This anxiety produces further constriction on the muscles surrounding the airways, which makes breathing even more difficult.

Caregivers must first focus on alleviating their own anxiety, which can heighten a child's own fears. The next step is to help the child relax. One method for this is as follows:

• The child sits comfortably, bending slight forward with the eyes closed.
• The hands are placed gently over the navel.
• The child is then told to pretend the stomach is a balloon.
• The "balloon" must be blown up by inhalation, not exhalation. The child can tell if this working because the hands will move slightly apart.
• When the child breathes out, the balloon will be made flat.

This exercise both relaxes the child and discourages shallow, oxygen-poor breathing. Massaging the child in gentle circles on the chest is relaxing and may also loosen mucus.

Other recommendations include the following:

• A child may also find relief by lying stomach-down on several pillows so that the head is slightly lower than the chest while the caregiver gently pats the back between the shoulder blades.
• Giving the child warm liquids, such as soup or hot cider, is effective in loosening mucus and may also relax bronchial muscles. Cold fluids, like cold air, should be avoided.
• Overhydration, too much liquid, can be harmful, however, so these drinks should not be forced on the child.
• Warm, moist air from vaporizers can greatly ease and moderate asthma attacks.
• Daily massages and breathing and relaxation techniques to reduce stress can be very helpful.

Monitoring

Many adults self-manage their asthma using daily monitoring of peak air flow with adjustments of the medications as needed. It involves the use of a peak flow meter, which measures peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR).

Click the icon to see an image of a peak flow meter.

Studies suggest, however, that for most children with asthma, an educational program is just as effective for managing the condition as monitoring. Most children, then, do not need to monitor their peak air flow on any regular basis.